Mammals

TIGERS

TIGER, NO LAUGHING JOKE

How is a tiger's face like your thumb?

ANSWER: The stripes on the tiger's face are like your thumbprint. Notwo people have exactly the same thumbprint. And no two tigers have exactlythe same stripe pattern.

It takes a lot of muscle to move a 400-pound body (180 kilograms). Anda tiger's body is packed with muscle. So it can leap 10 yards (9 meters)over level ground, or jump 15 feet (4.5 meters) in the air. Yet it can moveso gracefully that it doesn't make a sound.

Tigers are big-game hunters. They hunt water buffalo, wild pigs, deer,and other large animals. Water buffalo weigh more than a ton (900kilograms). It would take 13 men to move such an enormous weight.

Tigers are also big eaters. In a single year, one tiger must eat about
70 deer or other large animals. That is one reason why tigers hunt alone.
If they lived in big groups, they could never find enough prey to feed themall.

Many people think that a big, dangerous tiger could easily kill allthe prey it wants. But that's not true. In fact, the life of this big gamehunter isn't easy. Most of the animals it tries to attack get away. Itsometimes goes weeks without eating. And then it may hunt animals that canbe dangerous, even for a tiger.

To get enough food, tigers have to hunt day and night. They often huntat night, because that's when deer and antelope are most active. Tigersalso hunt at night because they are safe from humans then.

When it hunts, a tiger usually sneaks close to its prey by hidingbehind trees, bushes and rocks.

Tigers cannot run fast for long distances. So they must get close totheir prey before attacking. On their huge, padded feet, they can creepsilently to within 20 feet (6 meters) of another animal without beingheard. Its rear legs press beneath it, like a pair of giant springs aboutto be released.

Then, in a series of explosive leaps, it attacks from behind.

Next, the tiger grabs its prey with its claws and pulls it to theground. It bites the animal on the throat or on the back of the neck
The tiger has had a long history; the name tiger itself comes from the
Roman word "Tigris", named after the mighty Mesopotamian Tigris River. Thetiger's closest living relative is the lion, and believe it or not, theycan even be interbred. The male tiger can reach sizes of up to 8-10 feet inlength, with three feet for the tail, the male Siberian tiger can reachlengths of up to 13 feet with weights up to 750 pounds. Tigers can be foundin a fairly diverse area, from north China and Siberia, to the jungles of
Indonesia, even as far west as Iran and the Caucasus Mountains.

The tiger is a solitary animal, hunting mainly at night. The tiger's visionand sense of smell are relatively poor; the tiger will rely strongly on itssense of hearing, moving silently through the brush waiting to ambush itsprey. The tiger's main diet consists of deer, antelope, wild pigs, andcattle. The man-eaters are all too often the sick and injured, too weak tohunt and capture wild animals. The tiger would much rather flee rather thanstick around and put up a fight.

Tigers are excellent swimmers and will often rest in pools of waterjust to escape the heat, or, will swim from island to island such as in the
Sumatran islands. Tigers are poor tree climbers, often only doing so inemergencies or when they are young, (and on occasion, just out ofcuriosity). The Bengal, or, Indian Tiger is the

SIBERIAN TIGER

The largest of all living tigers lives in the coldest climate; but hasthick fur to keep it warm. Its pale color makes it difficult to spot inthe bleak, snowy landscape of Siberia and also makes it easier to get closeto its prey. There are no more than 200 Siberian tigers living in thewild.

INDIAN TIGER

The Indian tiger is the most common tiger in the world today. In all,there are about 2,500 left, and most of them live in India.

Hunting tigers used to be a sport for the rich people of India. Butit wasn't really a sport, because the tigers had little chance of escape.
The hunters rode on elephants, while their servants drove the tigers towardtheir guns. Over the years, thousands and thousands of tigers were killedthis way.

SUMATRAN TIGER

Their stripes hide them as they stalk prey in the jungle. How? Theirstripes look like the shadows of tall blades of grass, or like shadows andlight playing across trees.

For a fierce hunter, you'd think that food would be plentiful. Nottrue as most attacks fail. There may be weeks without eating.

Some Sumatran villagers believe that the tiger holds magical powersand that it's very bad luck to kill them.

SUMATRAN TIGER

Tigers are among the most admired and most feared animals in the world.
When we think of tigers, we think of danger. We think of powerful beastshiding in the dark jungle. We think of the strong jaws, big teeth, massivefeet, and long, sharp claws of the tiger.

But we also think of beauty. We picture a tiger running swiftly through ajungle, or plowing through snowdrifts. Its muscles ripple. Its brilliantlystriped orange and black coat gleams like satin. Its steely eyes glare intothe distance as it looks for prey.

This animal is a hunter. In fact, tigers are probably better than any otherland animal at capturing large prey single-handedly. Even so, the life of atiger is not easy. Finding food can be difficult, especially for a tigerthat is old or weak.
When they are desperate, some of them may even attack humans. But tigersalso get blamed unfairly for many deaths. Very few people are really killedby tigers each year. Most tigers run away when they see people. And withgood reason.

What tigers have done to people is nothing compared to what people havedone to tigers. Over the last 200 years, we have almost eliminated them inthe wild. Today, they are one of the most endangered animals on earth.

If humans do not disturb it, a tiger may live 20 years or more. Femalesusually live longer than males, because the males live more dangerously.
They often fight among each other. Sometimes one of them is killed thisway, or wounded so badly that it cannot hunt.

It isn't easy for people to tell a male tiger from a female, unlessthe female happens to be with her cubs, because only females take care ofthe young. Otherwise, the most obvious difference between males and femalesis size. Male tigers are much bigger. An adult male Bengal or Indian tigerusually weighs about 420 pounds (190 kilograms), and from head to rear, itis roughly seven feet long (2 meters). Females are about a foot shorter (30centimeters), and they weigh about one hundred pounds less (45 kilograms).
Sumatran tigers are generally smaller than Indian or Bengal tigers. Thebiggest tiger ever measured was a male Siberian Tiger. It was over 9 feetlong (2.6 meters) and weighed more than 700 pounds (320 kilograms).

Tigers once roamed over most of Asia. Some trekked over the frozennorth, others climbed the jagged mountains of Central Asia, and many creptthrough the steamy jungles of the south. The tigers that lived in thesedifferent places gradually developed into a number of different types, orraces.

Although tigers have been able to live in different climates andlandscapes, they have not been able to live alongside people. In fact,people have killed so many tigers that two races may already by extinct.

The Bengal tiger is the most common tiger in the world today. In all,there are about 2,500 Bengal tigers, and most of them live in India. The
Caspian tiger is one that you will only see in pictures. This beautiful catis now extinct. The Chinese tiger used to live in most parts of China.
Today, there are fewer than a hundred Chinese tigers in the whole country.

The Siberian tiger is the largest of all living tigers. It also livesin the coldest climate, but it has very thick fur to keep it warm. And itspale color makes it hard to see in the bleak, snowy landscape of Siberia.
This makes it easier to get close to its prey. There are no more than 200
Siberian tigers living in the wild.

Sumatran and Javan tigers live on land south of the Asian continent.
Their islands are covered by heavy, tropical jungles. To help them run andhide in the jungle, these tigers are smaller than other tigers. Today,there are fewer than 30 Sumatran and Javan tigers left in the wild.

The body of a tiger is like a deadly weapon. It has the quickness andstrength to take down animals twice its size. It has long, razor-sharpclaws for grabbing its prey. And it has enormous teeth, which can easilykill large animals.

But a tiger is also very quiet. It can sneak up on its prey withoutbeing seen or heard. And its stripes help it do this, because they make iteasier for the tiger to hide. You will also discover another reason why atiger's stripes are interesting. You can learn to tell one tiger fromanother by its stripes.

Like other cats, tigers usually keel their claws hidden beneath thefur. This way the claws do not wear down too quickly. And they won't makenoise when the tiger steps on rocks or hard ground. When it wants to useits claws for grabbing or scratching, the tiger will extend them.

Tigers have longer canine teeth than any other predator. One of theseteeth is at least 10 times longer than the biggest tooth in your mouth.
Using its big canine teeth and its broad, powerful paws, a tiger can killits prey with one quick bite.

CUB LIFE

Tigers and other predators play an important role in nature. Bykilling deer and other prey, they keep the numbers of these animals undercontrol. And because of this, the animals that survive are healthier.

If there were no tigers in the wild, the number of prey animals wouldgrow too fast. At first, they would eat so much that they would destroymany plants. And then many of these animals would go hungry.

A big, hungry tiger can eat about 100 pounds of meat (45 kilograms) atone sitting. This is about one fifth of its total weight. That would belike a 10-year-old human eating 40 hamburgers in one meal. Of course, atiger has to eat this much because it often goes several days withouteating anything.

On occasion, a tiger will attack a baby rhino. This can be dangerousthough, because the mother rhino is probably close by. And even a tigerdoes not want to make a four-thousand-pound rhino (1,800 kilograms) angry!

If a tiger is hungry enough, it may even attack a bear. But that maybe a big mistake.

Baby tigers look like cute kittens. At birth, they are about 12 incheslong (30 centimeters), and they weigh less than two pounds (one kilogram).
But in a year's time, these "kittens" will be big enough to hunt deer andbuffalo.

A mother tiger usually gives birth to two, three, or four cubs at atime. This is necessary so that at least one of her cubs will survive. Manypredators attack tiger cubs. To help keep them safe, the mother stays withher cubs for three or four years. During this time, the young tigers have alot to learn from her if they are to hunt and survive on their own.

Animals, unlike man, must either capture prey, or, evade predators. Inorder for these animals, such as the tiger, to get close enough to its preyfor the attack, these animals must be able to hide, or blend in with thebackground. That way the prey animal does not know that they are there ...

The tiger uses what is known as disruptive camouflage, which meansthat instead of blending in with it's surroundings, the tiger uses it'sstripes to break it's outline, or familiar shapes into smaller unfamiliarshapes.

Like all young animals, cubs are full of energy. They spend their dayswrestling, chasing each other, and darting after butterflies. All thisexercise helps prepare them for their first real hunt. And they are readyfor this when they are about six months old.

It's hard to believe that in just six months, a playful little cubwill be a ferocious hunter. By then, it will weigh almost 200 pounds (90kilograms) and have four big canine teeth for attacking prey.

A female tiger is one of the most loving and caring mothers in theanimal kingdom. She cuddles her babies to keep them warm. She feeds themand protects them from enemies. For three years or more she looks afterthem, teaching them how to hunt and survive in the wild.

This cub is only a few weeks old. In the wild, cubs are usually bornin caves and other protected places. The mother keeps them there and bringsthem food for about three months. After that, the cubs are big enough tofollow her as she hunts for prey.

The life of a baby tiger can be dangerous. If a mother leaves hercubs, even for a short time, they may be attacked by predators. Some of theanimals that like to eat tiger cubs are leopards (left), pythons (belowleft), and hyenas (below right).

LEOPARDS

CLOUDED LEOPARD: PRECIOUS CARGO

One chapter in the Zoological Society's clouded leopard story beganearly in 1983 with the arrival of a young pair of cats from the People's
Republic of China. The cats were a welcome addition to the Societycollection. Staff prepared a plan to encourage successful breeding, butunfortunately, tragedy occurred before the plan could be implemented.

In the exhibit, the female was accidentally exposed to a male, whichseverely mauled her right foreleg and shoulder. The injury was so severethat, because of the initial trauma and resulting fast-spreading infection,amputation of the leg and affected scapula were required to save her life.

The difficult surgery was masterfully conducted. Intensive care wasrequired for more than two months. The veterinary staff and a hospital teamkept the cat alive through repeated tube-feeding and frequent hands-oncare, despite the cat's aggressive distrust of such treatment. Followingmany weeks of this regimen, the cat responded and made sufficient recoveryto allow her return to the leopard exhibit.

A primary hurdle had been cleared - the female had survived theinjury. Next to be resolved were her adjustments to life on three legs andfinding a method which would allow her reintroduction to the Chinese male.

First, the mammal staff placed the cat in a program designed to helpher grow accustomed to life with three legs. After several months ofsatisfactory progress, the staff decided to place her with the male, whohad been kept in a separate but adjoining room. The animals were allowed tomake contact as they chose. To the relief of all, the reintroduction wassuccessful. The cats proved to be compatible, and, shortly afterreintroduction, breeding took place.

On the morning of April 25, 1984, final proof of the success of a longand difficult management program arrived - a litter of two cubs. One cubdid not survive, but the other was taken to the Children's Zoo to be raisedby the nursery staff.

UNIQUE FELINE

The clouded Leopard has intrigued its public, been sought after forits fur, and mystified those who would try to categorize it. During theearly morning hours of April 25, 1984, a discovery was made which was theculmination of a saga, which held elements of zoo diplomacy and goodwill,tragedy and suspense, cooperation and success. The discovery climaxed achain of events surrounding this paradoxical cat.

This cat has behavioral and physical traits typical of the small cats,genus Felis, and the big cats, genus Panther. A paradox to taxonomists andzoologists, it has been assigned to its own genus, Necrfelis, and isconsidered a bridge between the two larger genera. A relationship to theextinct saber toothed cat has even been suggested, based on the physicalcharacteristic of having, in proportion to body size, the longest caninesof all living felines. Its canine structure is also similar to that of thesaber-toothed cat.

The clouded leopard has a body size ranging from 24 to 42 inches (616 -
1,066 mm) Its tail adds another 21 to 36 inches (550-912 mm) of length.
This leopard's weight falls between 35 and 50 pounds (16-23 kg). Its fur isgrayish brown to tawny yellow and has dark markings in a variety of shapes,which seem to form cloudlike patterns.

The clouded leopard was once believed to be exclusively arboreal andnocturnal. Recent observations in captivity and in the wild indicate,however, that it may be considerably more terrestrial and diurnal thanpreviously thought. It is believed to prey upon birds, young buffalo,cattle, deer, goats, monkeys, pigs, and porcupines. The species isdifficult to manage in captivity because of a tendency to be highlyaggressive toward other species and humans. The exceptionally long canineteeth can easily inflict mortal injury. True to its paradoxical reputation,however, some cats may become extremely affectionate toward humans, evenpermitting and seeking physical contact.

NORTH CHINESE LEOPARD

This leopard is so rare that humans almost never see it in the wild.
It roams the forests and mountain meadows of northern China and Korea.

It makes its home in a great tangle of fallen trees and shrubs. Whenit kills smaller animals it devours them right away. But when it comes tolarger prey, like deer and wild goats, the leopard drags the animal home tosave for several meals.

Don't be scared. The teeth of this snarling leopard won't hurt you.

On the contrary. It's the snow leopard that should be afraid. Itsrelatives in the wild are in constant danger from poachers who want toshoot them for their pelts and teeth.

Even though shooting leopards is illegal, it's considered "goodbusiness. "That's because some people still wear leopard fur coats, andothers believe that leopard teeth earrings and necklaces have specialpowers.

SNOW LEOPARD: COLD WEATHER CAT

The shy, nocturnal and virtually unknown Snow Leopard is classifiedwith the big cats, but shares some small cat characteristics, for exampleit doesn't roar and it feeds in a crouched position.

The Snow leopard has to contend with extremes of climate and its coatvaries from fine in summer to thick in winter. The surfaces of its paws arecovered by a cushion of hair, which increases the surface area, thusdistributing the animal's with more evenly over soft snow and protectingits soles from the cold.

Snow leopards are solitary except during the breeding season, (Januaryto May), when male and female hunt together, or when a female has young.
One to four young are born in spring or early summer in a well-concealedden lined with the mother's fur. Initially, the spots are completely black.
The young open their eyes at 7-9 days, are quite active by two months, andremain with their mother through their first winter

Snow leopards are extremely rare in many parts of their range due tothe demand for their skins by the fur trade. Although in many countries itis now illegal to use these furs, the trade continues and the speciesremains under threat.

SNOW LEOPARD

They live in the snow-covered mountain peaks of Central Asia. Howhigh do these Asian Mountains rise? They reach 20,000 feet in altitude.

The snow leopard's long, thick fur keeps it warm even in the frostyair, and its creamy white and gray color camouflages it in the snow.
Because humans are fond of turning its beautiful coat into coats forthemselves, the species is on the brink of extinction.

HYENS

SPOTTED HYENA

This hyena is also known as the "laughing" hyena. Sometimes a hyenalets out a cry that resembles a wild human cackle.

Did you know that a hyena can gorge up to 33 pounds of meat extremelyfast? It needs to eat fast because as many as 50 other hungry hyenas maybe next to it, noisily feeding on the same piece of meat. Scientists haveseen 38 hyenas devour a zebra in 15 minutes, leaving only a few scrapsbehind.

The hyena is famous for eating animal parts that other meat-eaterswon't touch. You might even see it stamping and biting on an ostrich egg,trying to eat it. After devouring everything in sight, the hyena spits outthe horns, hooves, and bone pieces, ligaments and hair. If there areleftovers, it buries the meat in a muddy pool. The hyena's good memoryleads it back to the hidden food when it's hungry again.

The spotted hyena hunts at night. Hyenas were once thought to be justscavengers (animals that eat the meat left behind by predators). But now weknow that they're very good at finding their own food, too.

Hunting together in large packs, hyenas have a very effective way ofcatching their favorite food. One hyena scares a herd of wildebeest, looksfor the weakest member of the herd, and then begins a chase. The otherhyenas join in the attack, and a wildebeest feast is soon ready.

If you've ever heard the expression "laughing hyena" and wonderedwhere it came from, it was inspired by the strange, laughter-like soundhyenas make when they're being attacked or chased.

EATING HABITS

True hyenas have thickset muzzles with large ears and eyes, powerfuljaws and big cheek teeth to deal with a carnivorous diet. They walk on four -toed feet with five asymmetrical pads and nonretractile claws. The tail islong and bushy (less so in the spotted hyena). Spotted hyenas will eatalmost anything, but in the wild much of their food comes from mammalsheavier than 44 lb. which they mostly kill for themselves. The frequency ofhunting depends on the availability of carrion; spotted hyenas will lootthe kills of other carnivores, including lions. Group feeding is oftennoisy, but rarely involves serious fighting. Instead, each hyena gorgesextremely rapidly on up to 33 lb. of flesh. Pieces of a carcass may becarried away to be consumed at leisure or, occasionally, stored underwater.

It seems that the success of spotted hyenas is ensured throughindividual and cooperative hunting and sharing of food between adults.
Cooperation also extends to communal marking and defense of the territory,in which both sexes play a similar role, whether or not they are related.
Competition within the clan can, however, be intense. The system ofcommunication shows adaptations, which reduce aggression and coordinategroup activities. Such competition probably provided the selection pressurewhereby females evolved their large size and dominant position, which inturn relates also to levels of testosterone in the blood that areindistinguishable from those of the male. Thus female spotted hyenas areable to feed a small number of offspring alone and protect them from themore serious consequences of interference by other hyenas, particularlyunrelated males.

WHY THEY LAUGH

Hyenas are often called "solitary," a label which obscures the factthat their social systems are among the most complex known for mammals.
Spotted hyenas employ elaborate meeting ceremonies and efficient long-rangecommunication by scent and sound. Even when moving alone, spotted hyenasmaintain some direct contact with their fellows. They respond to sounds,which are only audible to humans with the aid of an amplifier andheadphones.

Calls audible to the unaided human ear include whoops, fast whoops,yells and a kind of demented cackle that gives this species its alternativename of laughing hyena. Whoop calls, in particular, are well-suited to long-range communication as they carry over several kilometers; each call isrepeated a number of times, which helps the listener to locate the caller,and each hyena has a distinctive voice. Infant hyenas will answer the pre -recorded whoops of their mothers, but not those of other clan hyenas.

LIONS

AFRICAN LION: FAMILY CATS

Lions are among the most admired animals on earth . Their strength andbeauty, combined with their bold nature, have fascinated people for ages.
In fact, the lion has often been called the "king of the beasts." And whenyou see a big male lion, with its magnificent main and proud walk, it'seasy to understand why. Lions really do look like kings.

But lions don't always lead the easy lives of kings. They often needto work hard to survive. Lions are meat eaters, or carnivores, so they musthunt other animals for food. And sometimes prey is hard to find. When foodis scarce, a lion may go for days without eating.

Lions are members of the big cat family, which includes tigers,leopards, and jaguars. The main difference between the big cats and allother cats is that generally big cats can roar but cannot purr. Other catscan purr but cannot roar.

The lion is one of the biggest cats in the world. Only the Siberiantiger is larger. A male lion may be 9 to 10 feet long (3 meters) and canweigh 500 pounds (227 kilograms) or more. Female lions are smaller. Theaverage female is 7 to 8 feet long (2 l/2 meters) and weighs 270 to 350pounds (140 kilograms).

Lions are different from most other cats in that they live in groupscalled prides. They hunt together, guard their territory together, andraise their young together. Lions that live in groups can catch more foodthan a single lion can. And they can protect themselves better. Also, lionsthat are born into groups have a large family to care for them.

There are two different kinds, or subspecies, of lions: the Africanand the Asiatic. Most of the lions in the world today are African lions.
These animals live on the grassy plains of Africa. The few Asiatic lionsthat remain live on a small wildlife preserve in India. There were oncemany other kinds of lions in the world but all of these are now extinct.

Lions sometimes climb high up into trees to rest on their branches andescape the biting insects below.

The body of a lion is made for catching prey. Most of the time, lionstry to get very close to their prey before they attack it. Then they make abig leap and grab the prey. To help them get close without being seen,lions have golden-brown coats that blend in with the land around them. Andto help them leap, they have strong muscles in their legs. A lion can leap
35 feet (10.5 meters) through the air in a single jump.

Lions do most of their hunting at night, so they have wonderfulhearing and eyesight to help them find prey in the dark. Their hearing isso sharp, they can hear prey that is more than a mile away. Lions can turntheir ears from side to side to catch sounds coming from almost anydirection. When a lion is moving through tall grass, it may not always beable to see its prey - but it can always hear it. The eyes of lions arethe biggest of any meat-eating animal. Like the eyes of other cats, theyare specially made for seeing at night.

Lions often work together when they hunt. By doing this, they increasetheir chances of getting food. A lion that hunts alone may have a hard timecatching prey.

Most of the hunting is done by a team of females. They divide the jobamong them, with each female doing part of the work to catch the prey. Someof the females scare prey animals and make them run - while other femaleslie in ambush to grab the fleeing animals.

The extra strength of a male is sometimes needed to bring down largeranimals, like wildebeest or buffalo. And larger animals are the best prey,because they provide more meat.

No matter how good a lion is at hunting, it misses more prey than itcatches. Sometimes lions will go for days without eating. If lions can'tfind enough of their regular prey, they will eat smaller animals like haresand tortoises - and even porcupines.

When they can, lions get their food by taking it away from otheranimals. This is often easier than hunting. In some parts of Africa, muchof the food that lions eat is taken away from hyenas. When food is reallyscarce, lions will eat almost anything they can find - including snakes,locusts, termites, peanuts, fruit, and rotten wood.

Baby lions are called cubs. And like most baby animals they need lotsof loving care. A lion cub is totally helpless at birth. It is blind andcan barely crawl. And it weighs less than 5 pounds (2 kg).

Cubs are born in-groups called litters. Usually, there are three cubsin a litter. But sometimes there are as many as five. For the first fewweeks of their lives, the cubs stay hidden in a safe place away from thepride. Then their mother brings them out to join the "family."

In a pride, all of the females help take care of the cubs. When onemother is away hunting, the other lions feed and watch over her young. Butsometimes, all of the adults join the hunt. Then the cubs are hidden in thetall grass or among the rocks.

A cub is born with dark spots all over its body. Some people thinkthat the spots may make it harder for predators to see the cubs when theyare hidden.

A mother lion carries her babies in her mouth - just like amotherhouse cat. To keep predators from finding the cubs, she moves them toa new hiding place every few days.

AFRICAN LION: FUTURE

Asiatic lions are endangered, and African lions have less living spacethan in times past. This is because people are taking away their homes, orhabitats. The human population in Africa and Asia is rapidly growing, andpeople are turning more and more land into farms and ranches. This meansthat the lions have less food to eat and so it is harder for them to live.

Fortunately, wildlife organizations throughout the world are workinghard to save the lions 'habitats. And governments in both Africa and Indiahave set aside special land where lions can live in safety.

AFRICAN LION: THE MANE CAT

Most experts agree that a lion will attack a human only if provoked.
But the experts also suggest that knowledge of the warning signs aremandatory for anyone who travels by foot in the bush. An angry lion willdrop to a crouch, flatten its ears, and flick its tail tip rapidly fromside to side. Low grunts and growls can often be heard; and just prior to acharge, the tail is jerked up and down. While these warning signs areimportant, it is perhaps of greater importance that a lion can bolt from acrouch and travel 40 yards in less than 2.7 seconds.

The lion is the largest of the African cats, weighing up to 200kilograms (440 pounds). Of the big cats, only the tiger is of greater size.
The mane of a male lion is the most distinguishing characteristic of thespecies, although a small percentage of lionesses also have manes. The maneadds to the apparent size of a male lion, and it is believed that the maneprovides added protection during male-to-male combat. The mane begins todevelop at about one year of age but remains short and scraggly until themale is three or four years old. Another physical characteristic of lionsis the tuft of long hairs at the end of the tail. This black tassel occursin both males and females. Often, when females have cubs or are beingcourted by males, the tail tassel is carried high above the ground.
Researchers believe that this behavior allows cubs or males to maintainvisual contact with the female when she moves through dense vegetation.
Fortunately for us, it is also an excellent way for humans to maintainvisual contact.

LION: NO LONGER KING

You may have believed that African lions are the kings of the jungle.
Well, that's just not true. But the reason isn't because lions aren't thelordly animals that you thought them to be; it's just that lions don't livein the jungle. They live in the open savannas in Africa, which are grassyplains with a few scattered trees.

Lions, of course, are big cats, but they're different from tigers,leopards and other big cats because they are very social animals. They livein a group called a "pride," which can have as many as 35 lions in it.
Adult female lions, or lionesses, and cubs make up most of each pride,although two or three adult males live in it, too.

Hunting is how the lions get their food. They eat animals such aszebras, gazelles, hartebeests, gnus and even buffalo. Lionesses do most ofthe hunting but when it comes to eating, the adult males get their sharefirst.

Lions often hunt together. A couple of lions may chase the prey andherd it toward other lions hiding in the grass. Then the hiding lions leapout and ambush the prey.

When lions eat, they often eat a whole lot of meat all at once. It'spossible for a wild lion to eat up to 40 pounds of meat at one sitting. Butthen it may fast for several days and not eat anything. While it's fasting,the lion may be very, very lazy and just sleep a lot ... until its time toeat again.

If you've ever heard the roar of a lion, you know what a thunderingsound it is. It's very possible for a lion's roar to be heard five milesaway if the wind conditions are right. Lions often roar just after the sungoes down.

Male lions have manes around their necks. A young male will start togrow a mane when he's about a year old. It's believed that the mane helpsprotect the neck areas of males when they fight with each other.

Baby lions are called cubs. A lioness will usually have three or fourcubs in an area protected by rocks or brush. Many animals are born withtheir eyes closed, but it's possible for a lion cub to be born with itseyes open. The cubs are very playful and love to wrestle and stalk eachother. Lionesses often care for each other's cubs, which is a little bitlike baby-sitting.

Although African lions aren't an endangered species, there's a lionsubspecies that lives in Asia that is very rare and endangered.

So remember: While you may not be able to call a lion the king of thejungle, there's certainly no reason you can't call him the king of beasts.

ASIAN LION

In the past, you could find hundreds of thousands of these lions inthe Middle East and Asia. Now, they number only 180, living on a smallwildlife preserve in India. Like the African lion, they've suffered fromthe destruction of wild lands and from over hunting.

Once, people thought that Asian lions had shorter manes than Africanlions, but that's not the case. Both can have either long or short manes.

WOLVES

COYOTE: PLACE IN THE FOOD CHAIN

Every animal on earth lives by eating some other living organism -- --plant or animal. The sequence of eaten and eater is called a food chain.
The ultimate source of the energy contained in food comes from the sun. Itis stored in the grass, and passed on to the grasshoppers. The alligatorlizard, which eats the grasshopper, is the next link in the food chain. It,in turn, is eaten by a roadrunner, which then falls victim to the coyote.

The coyote is called an ultimate consumer because nothing hunts it forfood.

But this food chain is a closed circle, the final link - coyote --being fastened to the first - the grass. When the coyote dies, itschemicals are broken down by bacteria and returned to the soil, where theynurture more plant growth.

Like many wild dogs, the coyote is usually active at night, when itcan hunt safely. You can often see a coyote in the early evening andmorning, as it goes to and from its nighttime activities.

Coyotes can run as fast as 40 miles per hour, and at slightly slowerspeeds, they can run for miles. If a coyote can stay close to its prey, ithas a good chance of getting a meal.

DHOLE

In hunting style, the dhole is like the hyena. It hunts in a pack withother dholes, whining, barking and whistling as they go. Whistling usuallymeans that the hunt is unsuccessful, and the pack should reassemble foranother try.

It is almost impossible for a single dhole to kill a deer, but five totwelve dholes can manage it together. After the kill, dholes compete forthe morsels by eating very fast. A dhole can chew up almost nine pounds ofmeat in an hour.

Strong, wise, brave - all these words describe the gray wolf. Butanother word needs to be added to the list: endangered.

Two hundred years ago, the gray wolf roamed throughout North America.
But many of them were shot by European settlers and pioneers, who were busycutting down the wolves 'forest home for houses and towns. Those wolvesthat remained found fewer deer, moose and beaver to eat.

Today, the gray wolf continues to feel the impact of an expandinghuman population. That, and the popular belief that wolves shouldn't livenear humans, continues to threaten their presence on our planet.

GRAY WOLF

Did you know that the gray wolf is the largest member of the dogfamily? Apart from man, it once was the most widespread mammal outside thetropics. As humans move into its habitat, the wolf had to move out.

Did you know that after humans, wolves may be the most adaptablecreatures of all? They're able to live in a wider variety of climates andhabitats than most other animals and can survive on many different kinds offood.

BEST LEFT UNPROVOKED

Wolves prey on many species in the north - musk ox, caribou, moose,deer, hares and even rodents. These carnivores are among the most malignedof all animals, victims of false myths and legends and systematic programsof extinction. They are accused of attacking humans and destroying entireherds of domestic animals. But their depredations of livestock are lesssevere than often claimed. And unprovoked attacks by healthy wolves in
North America on humans are unknown. Those recorded from Europe's Middle
Ages are thought to have been by rabid animals or hybrids.

The world will be a far lonelier place if the last wolf dies. Asbiologist Ernest P. Walker wrote in his book, MAMMALS OF THE WORLD, "Thehowl of the wolf and coyote, which to some people is of more enduringsignificance than superhighways and skyscrapers, should always remain apart of our heritage. "

PRIMATS

APES: FUTURE

The future of apes is up to us. All of the great apes are already onthe endangered species list, and all of the lesser apes are as well.
Scientists who have studied them agree that all great apes will soon dieout in the wild unless steps are taken now to protect them.

Gorillas and orangutans appear to have no natural enemies, andchimpanzees have very few. Gibbons, because they move so fast and live sohigh up in the trees, are safe from any animal. Nothing could threaten anyof the apes with extinction until man started hunting them, capturing them,and destroying the wild lands in which they live.

Today, hunting of apes is against the law everywhere, and there arestrict regulations controlling the capture of wild apes. But illegalhunting and trapping continues. And the greatest threat of all - thedestruction of wild lands - grows greater every day. Tropical forests arebeing cut down faster today than ever before ... at the rate of one acreevery second, according to a recent report. At this incredible pace, thehomes of many wild creatures - including apes - are simply disappearing.

Most endangered of the apes are the mountain gorillas. Today, thereare less than 500 in Central Africa.

And the other apes are not much better off. Nobody is really sure howmany pygmy chimpanzees or bonobos survive in the jungles south of the Congo
River - but it is probably less than 10,000. There are fewer than 5,000orangutans still alive in scattered areas of Borneo and Sumatra. And thenumbers of lowland gorillas and chimpanzees are declining rapidly.

Fortunately, there are people who are trying to save the magnificentapes. In Central Africa, governments are working to protect the lastremaining homes of mountain gorillas. They have even organized guards thatpatrol the borders of gorilla preserves to keep the gorillas safe fromhunters. The World Wildlife Fund and other groups are raising money to buyland and make sure that it will never be taken away from gorillas,chimpanzees, orangutans, and gibbons. And scientists everywhere arestudying the apes to find new ways to help them.

BONOBO OR PYGMY CHIMPANZEE

Biologists who have studied the behavior of these animals say they arethe smarter of two species of chimpanzees. Their hair is parted at themiddle and wisps out to the sides of the head, giving them an obviousphysical distinction from the common chimpanzee.

Both species of chimps are intelligent. They belong to the selectanimals that make and use tools. You might see a chimp defend himself witha tree branch, or take a twig and turn it into a useful devise forgathering or eating foods. Chimps also communicate with many gestures andvocalizations.

People may feel especially drawn to chimps because of some similarbehaviors. Young chimps laugh when they're tickled. Bonobos quarrel overfood, but hug and kiss to make up.

BONOBO: WORKSHOP IN CONSERVATION

The bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee, is one of only four living species ofgreat apes. The other three species, the gorilla, orangutan, and commonchimpanzee, have received far greater attention until now. Not evenrecognized as a separate species until 1929, the bonobo still remains muchof a mystery in its native habitat, the central rain forests of Zaire.
Often confused with the common chimpanzee, the bonobo is only slightlysmaller but has a more graceful, slender body; the head is smaller but thelegs are longer than those of common chimps. The most outstanding physicaldifference is the bonobo's hairstyle, an attractive coiffure of long blackhairs neatly parted down the middle. To the experienced eye, the differencebetween the chimpanzee and the bonobo is as great as the difference betweena leopard and a cheetah.

The bonobo is as rare in zoos (there are less than 80 in captivityworldwide) as it is in the wild (estimates range from 5,000 to 20,000). In
1989, the entire San Diego Zoo group of 11 animals was relocated to the
Wild Animal Park.

No effective conservation plan for the bonobo could be developedwithout firsthand knowledge of the only country that is home to thiscritically endangered ape. International conservation projects are as mucha people issue as an animal issue; therefore, the needs of the local
Zairian people must be taken into account. Political, cultural, andeconomic problems are just as important to consider as the biological needsof the species we are attempting to save. For these reasons, the San Diego
Bonobo Workshop continually emphasizes the need for an internationalcooperative effort with the people and government of Zaire.

In light of the increasing awareness of the need to preserve theworld's biodiversity, it is quite surprising how little attention Zaire hasreceived. The extent and variety of the biological resources in Zaire'sforest ecosystems is matched by few other tropical countries. After Brazil,
Zaire has the second largest tropical forest in the world. Despite thisfact, Zaire is among the last of the countries in the tropical forest beltwithout a comprehensive program to protect its tropical forest. Programslike the one developed at the San Diego Bonobo Workshop will beinstrumental in obtaining funds from organizations like the World Bank toprotect the bonobo and its forest habitat.

THE GORILLA SUBSPECIES

Three subspecies of gorillas are currently recognized. Almost all zoogorillas are western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) native to west
African nations such as Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon,
Nigeria, and Rio Muni. The total population of western lowland gorillas isestimated to be between 30,000 to 50,000 individuals, and they areclassified as threatened by the IUCN (International Union for Conservationof Nature and Natural Resources). Studying these gorillas in the wild isextremely difficult, because their preferred habitat is dense jungle.

A very few eastern lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla graueri) nativeto eastern Zaire, live in zoos. Mbongo and Ngagi, the two "mountaingorillas "who lived at the San Diego Zoo in the 1930s and 1940s, would nowbe classified as eastern lowland gorillas. These gorillas are consideredthe largest subspecies on average, and generally have blacker hair thanwestern lowland gorillas. They number approximately 3,000 to 4,000 and areclassified as endangered.

No mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) exist in captivity,but these are the most-studied gorillas in the wild. They live in themountainous border regions of Rwanda, Uganda, and Zaire. Only about 600individuals exist, in two separate populations, and they are classified asendangered. Mountain gorillas are distinguished physically by their largesize and extra-long, silky black hair. A number of skeletal differencesexist between the three subspecies as well.

It would be interesting to see if DNA sequence comparisons could helpus understand the phylogenetic (evolution of a genetically related group asdistinguished from the development of the individual organism)relationships of the gorilla subspecies. This could help anthropologistsunderstand the mechanisms and rates of primate evolution. It could also beimportant if gorilla populations ever become so critically depleted thatinterbreeding of different subspecies were contemplated. At CRES, we arecomparing DNA sequences from gorillas of all three subspecies. Only a fewgorillas have been tested so far, but to date it appears that therelationships between the subspecies generally follows the geographiclocation of populations.

Western lowland gorillas have a large range, and many DNA sequencedifferences exist between different individuals of this subspecies. Westernlowland gorillas are separated by 600 miles from eastern lowland gorillas,and substantial sequence differences exist between the two groups as well.
The eastern lowland and mountain gorilla populations are found relativelyclose together, but they have been isolated from each other for an unknownamount of time. They are presently separated by substantial geographicbarriers: portions of the Rift Valley and a variety of mountain ranges.
However, we find much less genetic difference between the eastern lowlandgorillas and the mountain gorillas than there is between certain westernlowland gorillas. The distinct physical differences between eastern lowlandand mountain gorillas probably reflect recent adaptations to theirrespective habitats - lowlands versus mountains - and not a distantgenetic relationship.

LION-TAILED MACAQUES: BACKGROUND

The macaques, a genus of some 13 to 20 species (there is disagreementamong taxonomists on the actual number), are found in North Africa andthroughout southern Asia from Afghanistan to Japan. The most familiar formis the rhesus monkey, which is often seen by tourists in the towns andcities of India. Fossils dating to six million years indicate that themacaques originated in northern Africa and once roamed over Europe as farnorth as London. These earlier macaques were not very different inappearance from the Barbary monkeys that survive today in Morocco, Algeria,and on Gibraltar. However, once the Macaques reached Asia, at least bythree million years ago, they diversified into a variety of forms. Few areas distinctly different as the lion-tails, with their black coats, silverfacial ruffs, and strongly arboreal habitats. Lion-tails are one of the twomacaque species that are listed as in danger of extinction, but we mayrealistically expect the Tibetan, Formosan, and Sulawesian species to fallinto that category before the year 2000.

Their geographical range snakes along the slope's and highest crestsof the Western Ghat Mountains where, today, the forest is reduced to aboutone percent of the total land cover. Like its captive counterpart, the wildliving lion-tail was ignored by primatologists until well into the 1970s.
Although opinions vary, most would agree that the wild population todaynumbers between 2,000 and 5,000 individuals. Initial field reports indicatethat wild lion-tails prefer to spend about 99 percent of their time in thetrees. Like other macaques, their diet is dominated by wild fruits, butincludes a variety of flowers, leaves, buds, grasses, insects, and even afew nestlings of birds and mammals. One of the more interesting forms offeeding reported by Dr. Steven Green of Miami University involves a simpleform of tool use. In order to protect their hands while feeding on stingingcaterpillars, lion-tails have been seen to pluck large tree leaves and laythem over the caterpillars before pouncing on them.

In the wild state, lion-tail groups average about 20 individuals,usually with more than a single adult male present. Males are larger thanfemales by about a third and are typically ranked relative to one anotherin a social hierarchy. Males usually emigrate from their natal group tojoin another during the early stages of adulthood. Being macaques, lion -tails are intensely social and are highly aggressive toward unfamiliarindividuals. Preliminary work on our captive population indicates that muchof the behavior between group members is dependent upon one's relationshipto a small number of female-headed lineages. It is possible to have up tofour living generations within each matriline and four or five matrilineswithin a group. Dominance relationships among and within matrilines play acrucial role in the everyday life of females and their offspring, as theydo for adult males. One's social position determines access to essentialresources such as food, perches, and social partners.

LION-TAILED MACAQUES: FUTURE PLANS

This highly endangered primate has been exhibited at the San Diego Zoosince 1923. In 1979, the existing population of three males and threefemales was relocated to the Primate Research Pad for concentrated study oftheir reproductive biology. Within the next decade their reproductivecycles were characterized, as were their sexual and social behavior,parturition and infant rearing, and various other aspects of the captiveexperience. Nearly a dozen scientific papers from these studies have beenpublished in peer-reviewed journals or as book chapters.

BY 1989 the Zoo's captive population had grown to 38 individuals. Thissame year the program undertook a significant change in direction. Sevenindividuals, including five born at the Primate Research Pad, were releasedinto a state-of-the-art exhibit in Sun Bear Forest. Although theseindividuals are no longer under study, it was knowledge gained over theprevious decade that contributed to the design of an exhibit facilitywhich, by anyone's criteria, is an outstanding success.

A second troop of 11 individuals was simultaneously relocated to thenewly constructed 3/4-acre breeding kraal at the Wild Animal Park. It isthis population which will be a major research focus during the next fiveyears. This troop has been exempted from Species Survival Plan management,a program of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums,providing freedom to pursue several interesting lines of inquiry. One ofthese has to do with the impact of traditional management regimes oncertain life history parameters. The second investigation will pursueexperiments designed to prepare the troop for reintroduction to suitablehabitat in India in five to seven years.

The lion-tailed macaque is by nature a highly social mammal. Groupmembers are organized in a social hierarchy that appears to remain stableover many years. Individual troops are highly xenophobic. This trait,combined with natural aggressiveness, results in potentially fatal conflictwhen new individuals are introduced. In the wild state, males will leavetheir natal troop at sexual maturity and join a new one. Females remain intheir natal troops throughout their lives.

Transfer by males is accompanied by a substantial amount ofaggression, but is presumably a necessary event to preclude inbreeding.
These natural attributes of wild troops would seemingly have profoundimplications for the transfer of individuals, especially of females,between zoological institutions to satisfy genetic and reproductiveobjectives.

It is relevant to ask if the ongoing disturbance of the social orderthrough frequent inter-institutional transfers might negatively impact onsuch parameters as infant mortality, female fecundity, and perhaps even theneonatal sex ratio. Our kraal group has been together for the past 24years, the only social disturbances having been the replacement of breedingmales. We have learned how to integrate new males into groups with aminimum of social upheaval. We therefore have a unique opportunity tocompare findings from our relatively undisturbed population with those frommore traditionally managed populations in other zoos over the next severalyears.

Preparation of this same troop for reintroduction to the wild has twocomponents. The first entails a number of experimental procedures designedto "teach" natural foraging, avoidance of predators (including humans), andappropriate social cohesiveness. In addition, the troop must be routinelyevaluated for any pathogens that would pose a hazard to the existing wildpopulation.

The second component is evaluation of potential release sites in thewild. The area selected for a test-case reintroduction must not only beprotected from human activity, but must contain adequate food and shelterto insure the long-term survival of the troop. CRES anticipates workingclosely with Indian colleagues on this aspect.

NIGHTTIME IS THE NORM: LABOR AND BIRTH IN THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE

Lion-tailed macaque neonates (newborns) are born with black fur, andtheir faces, hands, and feet are pink and hairless. Their characteristicsilver manes do not begin to grow in until the babies are several weeksold, and their faces gradually acquire the black pigmentation of adults.

When the lion-tailed macaque breeding and management program began atthe CRES primate facility more than ten years ago, little was known aboutthe gestation, labor, and delivery of infants in this species. There wasextensive documentation of parturition in some other macaques, but nocomparable data were available on the much rarer lion-tailed macaque. Howlong is the normal gestation length? At what time are births most likely tooccur? How long does labor last? What factors indicate that there may be adelivery problem requiring veterinary intervention? Answers to these andother important questions were needed in order to ensure the best captivemanagement procedures and to maximize the breeding success for thisspecies.

The primary reason these data had not been collected previously isthat most new infants were usually discovered in the morning, after thekeepers arrived at work. We began collecting data on each lion-tailedmacaque birth by setting up 24-hour "birth watches" that began several daysbefore the dam was due to deliver. Conception dates were determinedpartially through hormone data from daily urine samples, and also bykeeping careful track of menstruation, sex-skin swellings, and matingepisodes. Parturition-date predictions were based on the 168-day gestationlength documented for the rhesus macaque. However, because this is anaverage length, we began our observations about ten days before the duedate in order not to miss the early deliveries.

The birth watch involved round-the-clock observations at 15-minuteintervals during successive, 4-hour shifts. Observations were recorded bykeepers, technicians, and trained volunteers. As soon as any signs ofstraining or birth fluids were noted, continuous notes were kept and eachsubsequent contraction or birth-related event was timed and recorded.
Behavioral indications of impending labor included restlessness and manualexploration of the vaginal area. Although these signs eventually provedreliable, we used the first, clear contraction as the starting point formeasuring the duration of labor. (In human terms, this is equivalent tosecond-stage labor. The usual criterion of first-stage labor, cervicaldilatation, cannot be observed in the wild primate unless restraint isused.) During actual labor, several straining postures were noted; mostcommon were variations of squatting postures and arched-back stretches.

The first birth was to an experienced mother (this was her thirddelivery) and was documented on videotape. After nearly 8 full hours oflabor and 188 contractions, the dam gave birth to a healthy, female infant.
These initial observations led us to believe that a labor of this durationwas not a basis for concern; however, we soon learned that this was farbeyond the average labor length and number of contractions common for thisspecies.

Over an 8-year period, we were able to collect data on 18 births from
8 different mothers in our colony. Our program has provided some valuableinformation about species-typical birth patterns that we can now use todirect management decisions. We found that the average length of labor toexpulsion of the fetus was about 2 hours and 15 minutes, and the shortestlabor was only 50 minutes total. The female that required eight hours todeliver in the first case observed then delivered her subsequent infant inonly a little over an hour! Although our sample is still small, it wouldappear that, on the average, first-time mothers have longer and moredifficult labors.

Our study determined that the average number of contractions todelivery for lion-tails was 54. The female with the longest labor also hadthe largest number of contractions (454). In her next delivery, the infantarrived after only 14 contractions, the lowest number recorded during theentire birth study. Based on the average number of contractions seen in 17successful deliveries, and one ending in stillbirth, contractionfrequencies approaching 75 to 100 in number may serve as a warning thatintervention will be necessary.

The average length of gestation for 14 pregnancies in our colony was
169.5 days, with a range of 163 to 176 days. This is very similar to whathas been reported for other macaques. Our observers quickly discovered thatthose who watched during the 7 to 11 P.M. shifts were the most successfulat being present when births occurred: labor began between the hours of
7:15 P.M. and 3:15 A.M. in every case but one. The exception was one first -time mother that began straining in the early afternoon. This female had adifficult labor, and a dead fetus was later removed by cesarean sectionafter 8 hours of straining and 193 contractions. All the other birthsresulted in live offspring and occurred between the hours of 8:05 PM and
6:28 A.M. Based on previous primate birth records, daytime births are notthe norm and may indicate an increased risk to both fetus and dam.

Expulsion of the placenta always took place within about 20 minutesafter parturition, and usually it was immediately consumed by the mother.
In a few cases, first-time mothers carried the placenta around for severalhours, along with the infant, until it could be removed by keepers.
Whenever possible, a sample of the placenta is saved for analysis by Zoopathologists, who check it for abnormalities. After delivery, the motherscarefully lick the birth fluids off their infants, and the neonates beginnursing within a few hours. Each and every female in the study providedexcellent maternal care immediately following parturition.

The lion-tailed macaque breeding colonies are now located in the Sun
Bear Forest exhibit at the Zoo (one adult male and six females) and in alarge, off-exhibit kraal at the Wild Animal Park (one adult male, twojuvenile males, one infant male, and ten females). Together these representthe largest captive group of lion-tailed macaques in the world - about 20percent of the total captive population. Eight years of patient monitoring,birth watches, record keeping, and evaluation have brought us a long way inthe breeding and captive management of this macaque species.

ZOONOOZ, May, 1990 "Nighttime Is the Norm: Labor and Birth in the Lion -tailed Macaque, "by Helena Fitch-Snyder, Animal Behavior Specialist/CRESand Donald Lindburg, Ph.D. Behaviorist/CRES.