Rembrandt

(1606-1669)

Rembrandt was a Dutch baroque artist who ranks as one of the greatestpainters in the history of Western art. His full name was Rembrandt
Harmenszoon van Rijn, and he possessed a profound understanding of humannature that was matched by a brilliant technique-not only in painting butin drawing and etching-and his work made an enormous impact on hiscontemporaries and influenced the style of many later artists. Perhaps nopainter has ever equaled Rembrandt's chiaroscuro effects or his boldimpasto.

Life

Born in Leiden on July 15, 1606, Rembrandt was the son of a miller.
Despite the fact that he came from a family of relatively modest means, hisparents took great care with his education. Rembrandt began his studies atthe Latin School, and at the age of 14 he was enrolled at the University of
Leiden. The program did not interest him, and he soon left to study art -first with a local master, Jacob van Swanenburch, and then, in Amsterdam,with Pieter Lastman, known for his historical paintings. After six months,having mastered everything he had been taught, Rembrandt returned to
Leiden, where he was soon so highly regarded that although barely 22 yearsold, he took his first pupils, among them Gerrit Dou.

Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam in 1631; his marriage in 1634 to Saskiavan Uylenburgh, the cousin of a successful art dealer, enhanced his career,bringing him in contact with wealthy patrons who eagerly commissionedportraits. An exceptionally fine example from this period is the Portraitof Nicolaes Ruts (1631, Frick Collection, New York City). In addition,
Rembrandt's mythological and religious works were much in demand, and hepainted numerous dramatic masterpieces such as The Blinding of Samson
(1636, Stдdelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt). Because of his renown as ateacher, his studio was filled with pupils, some of whom (such as Carel
Fabritius) were already trained artists. In the 20th century, scholars havereattributed a number of his paintings to his associates; attributing andidentifying Rembrandt's works is an active area of art scholarship.
In contrast to his successful public career, however, Rembrandt's familylife was marked by misfortune. Between 1635 and 1641 Saskia gave birth tofour children, but only the last, Titus, survived; her own death came in
1642. Hendrickje Stoffels, engaged as his housekeeper about 1649,eventually became his common-law wife and was the model for many of hispictures.

Despite Rembrandt's financial success as an artist, teacher, and artdealer, his penchant for ostentatious living forced him to declarebankruptcy in 1656. An inventory of his collection of art and antiquities,taken before an auction to pay his debts, showed the breadth of Rembrandt'sinterests: ancient sculpture, Flemish and Italian Renaissance paintings,
Far Eastern art, contemporary Dutch works, weapons, and armor.
Unfortunately, the results of the auction-including the sale of his house -were disappointing.
These problems in no way affected Rembrandt's work; if anything, hisartistry increased. Some of the great paintings from this period are The
Jewish Bride (1632), The Syndics of the Cloth Guild (1661, Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam), Bathsheba (1654, Musйe du Louvre, Paris), Jacob Blessing the
Sons of Joseph (1656, Staatliche Gemдldegalerie, Kassel, Germany), and aself-portrait (1658, Frick Collection). His personal life, however,continued to be marred by sorrow, for his beloved Hendrickje died in 1663,and his son, Titus, in 1668. Eleven months later, on October 4, 1669,
Rembrandt died in Amsterdam.

Early Painting

Rembrandt may have created more than 600 paintings as well as anenormous number of drawings and etchings. The style of his earliestpaintings, executed in the 1620s, shows the influence of his teacher,
Pieter Lastman, in the choice of dramatic subjects, crowded compositionalarrangements, and emphatic contrasts of light and shadow. The Noble Slav
(1632, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City) shows Rembrandt's love ofexotic costumes, a feature characteristic of many of his early works.
A magnificent canvas, Portrait of a Man and His Wife (1633, Isabella
Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston), shows his early portrait style-hispreoccupation with the sitters 'features and with details of clothing androom furnishings; this careful rendering of interiors was to be eliminatedin his later works. Members of Rembrandt's family who served as his modelsare sometimes portrayed in other guises, as in Rembrandt's Mother as the
Prophetess Anna (1631, Rijksmuseum), or the wistful Saskia as Flora, (1634,the Hermitage, Saint Petersburg).
Perhaps no artist ever painted as many self-portraits (about 60), orsubjected himself to such penetrating self-analysis. Not every earlyportrayal, however, can be interpreted as objective representation, forthese pictures frequently served as studies of various emotions, later tobe incorporated into his biblical and historical paintings. The self -portraits also may have served to demonstrate his command of chiaroscuro;thus, it is difficult to tell what Rembrandt looked like from such a self -portrait as the one painted about 1628 (Rijksmuseum, on loan from the Daan
Cevat Collection, England), in which deep shadows cover most of his face,barely revealing his features. On the other hand, in none of these youthfulself-portraits did he attempt to disguise his homely features.

Biblical subjects account for about one-third of Rembrandt's entireproduction. This was somewhat unusual in Protestant Holland of the 17thcentury, for church patronage was nonexistent and religious art was notregarded as important. In Rembrandt's early biblical works, drama wasemphasized, in keeping with baroque taste.

Among Rembrandt's first major public commissions in Amsterdam was the
Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp (1632, Mauritshuis, The Hague). This workdepicts the regents of the Guild of Surgeons gathered for a dissection andlecture. Such group portraits were a genre unique to Holland and meantsubstantial income for an artist in a country where neither church norroyalty acted as patrons of art. Rembrandt's painting surpassescommemorative portraits made by other Dutch artists with its interestingpyramidal arrangement of the figures, lending naturalism to the scene.
Middle Period

Many of Rembrandt's paintings of the 1640s show the influence ofclassicism in style and spirit. A 1640 self-portrait (National Gallery,
London), based on works by the Italian Renaissance artists Raphael and
Titian, reflects his assimilation of classicism both in formal organizationand in his expression of inner calm. In the Portrait of the Mennonite
Preacher Anslo and His Wife (1641, Staatliche Museen, Berlin-Dahlem),quieter in feeling than his earlier work, the interplay between the figuresis masterfully rendered; the preacher speaks, perhaps explaining a biblicalpassage to his wife, who quietly listens. A number of Rembrandt's otherworks depict dialogues and, like this one, represent one specific moment.
In the moving Supper at Emmaus (1648, Musйe du Louvre), Rembrandt's use oflight immediately conveys the meaning of the scene.

His group portraiture continued to develop in richness and complexity.
The so-called Night Watch-more accurately titled The Shooting Company of
Captain Frans Banning Cocq (1642, Rijksmuseum)-portrays the bustlingactivity of a military company, gathered behind its leaders, preparing fora parade or shooting contest. In departing from the customary static modeof painting rows of figures for the corporate portrait, Rembrandt achieveda powerful dramatic effect. Despite the popular myth that the painting wasrejected by those who commissioned it, and led to a decline in Rembrandt'sreputation and fortune, it was actually well received. Many of Rembrandt'slandscapes in this middle period are romantic and based on his imaginationrather than recording specific places. The inclusion of ancient ruins androlling hills, not a part of the flat Dutch countryside, as in River Valleywith Ruins (Staatliche Gemдldegalerie, Kassel), suggests a classicalinfluence derived from Italy.

Late Period

Rembrandt's greatest paintings were created during the last twodecades of his life. Baroque drama, outward splendor, and superficialdetails no longer mattered to him. His self-portraits, portrayals of singlefigures and groups, and historical and religious works reveal a concernwith mood and with spiritual qualities. His palette grew richly coloristicand his brushwork became increasingly bold; he built thick impastos thatseem miraculously to float over the canvas. In Portrait of the Painter in
Old Age (1669?, National Gallery, London), Rembrandt's features betray aslightly sarcastic mood. One of his finest single portraits (1654,
Stichting Jan Six, Amsterdam) is that of Jan Six. Six, wearing a deeplycolored red, gold, and gray costume, is shown putting on a glove. Theportrait is painted in a semiabstract style that demonstrates Rembrandt'sdaring technical bravura. Six's quiet, meditative mood is expressed by thesubtle play of light on his face. In such late biblical works as Potiphar's
Wife Accusing Joseph (1655, Staatliche Museen, Berlin-Dahlem), and the verymoving Return of the Prodigal Son (1669?, the Hermitage) Rembrandtconcentrated on the inherent psychological drama rather than on theexcitement of the narrative as he had in works of his early period. Ingeneral, after his early period, Rembrandt was not particularly interestedin allegorical and mythological subjects.

Graphic Work

For Rembrandt, drawing and etching were as much major vehicles ofexpression as painting. Some 1400 drawings, recording a wide range ofoutward and inner visions, are attributed to him, works mostly done fortheir own sake rather than as preparatory studies for paintings or prints.
The majority of them are not signed, because they were made for his privateuse. Rembrandt's early drawings (of the 1630s) were frequently executed inblack or red chalk; later his favorite medium became pen and ink on whitepaper, often in combination with brushwork, lending a tonal accent. In somedrawings, such as The Finding of Moses (1635?, Rijksprentenkabinet,
Amsterdam), a few charged lines indicating three figures carry maximumexpression. Other drawings were, in contrast, highly finished, such as The
Eastern Gate at Rhenen (Oostpoort) (1648?, Musйe, Bayonne, France), whichdisplays details of architecture and perspective. He made masterfuldrawings throughout the early as well as mature phases of his career. Anexample of an early work is Portrait of a Man in an Armchair, Seen Througha Frame (1634, private collection, New York City), done in chalk,considered Rembrandt's most finished portrait drawing. Superb later worksare Nathan Admonishing David (1655-1656?, Metropolitan Museum), done with areed pen, and a genre piece, A Woman Sleeping (Hendrickje?) (1655?, British
Museum, London), a powerful brush drawing universally praised as one of hisfinest.

Rembrandt's etchings were internationally renowned even during his lifetime. He exploited the etching process for its unique potential, using scribbling strokes to produce extraordinarily expressive lines. In combination with etching he employed the drypoint needle, achieving special effects with the burr in his mature graphic work. Indeed,

Rembrandt's most impressive etchings date from his mature period. They include the magnificent full-length portrait of Jan Six (1647,
Bibliothіque Nationale, Paris), the famous Christ Healing the Sick, also known as the 100 Guilder Print (1642-1645?), The poetic landscape Three

Trees (1643), and Christ Preaching, or La Petite Tombe (1652?), all in the British Museum.

The Music Party, 1626, oil on wood, Rijksmuseum at Amsterdam.

The Rich Old Man from the Parable, detail, 1627, oil on wood,

Gemдldegalerie, Berlin.

Self Portrait, 1627, oil on canvas, Staatliche Museen Kassel,

Gemдldegalerie Alte Meister.

Self Portrait, 1629, oil on canvas, The Mauritshuis at The Hague.

Self Portrait, 1629, panel , Pinakothek at Munich.

Artist in his Studio, 1629, oil on panel, Museum of Fine Arts,

Boston.

Bust of an Old Man in a Fur Cap, 1630, oil on wood, Tiroler

Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, Innsbruck.

Belshazzar's Feast, 1630-35, National Gallery at London.

Nicolaes Ruts, 1631, oil on mahogany panel, Frick Collection at New

York.