№ 1. Morphological and genealogical classifications of languages.

Lang-e may be classified in different ways: the morphologically andgenealogically.
When we classified the language morphologically we mean the structure ofthe word of a living language. When we classified the languagegenealogically we mean the origin of the language. According to the M.C.the language are divided into languages having not affixes and the lang-swith affixes. The words of the lang-e, which has not affixes, areunchangeable (such as де, туди, тут, там, in, at, for, since, etc). Wordorder is of a great important in lang-s with has no affixes. Languages withaffixes are classified into agglutinative and inflected. Both of them arecharacterized by affixes but the connection between the root or the steamof the word and the suffixes is quite different. In inflected languages thesuffix is characterized by two or more meanings. (будинків). To the inflectedlanguages we refer the language of Indo-European family (such as Russian,
German, English, Latin, etc). In agglutinative languages the suffix ischaracterized only by one meaning (in Georgian lang., in English - somewords like ox-oxen's-бик). Agglutinative languages are divided into:
Altanian, Agro-Finish, Iberian-Caucasian. According to the G.C. all thelang-s of the world are classified into large families of lang-s. They are:
Indo-European, Semitic and Hermitic, Altaic, Iberian-Caucasian, Chinese-
Tibet, Indonesian.

№ 2. The Verb in English and in Russian compare.

The verb is a notional part of speech. Both in E & R the verb denote anaction (to write - писати), a process (to work) and a state (to sit,stand). Syntactically the verb functions as a simple verbal predicate. (Вонапише листи щодня. She writes letters every day.) Morphologicallythe verb in Russian is characterized by the following categories: tense,aspect, mood, person, number, gender. The English forms has the samecategories but they has not the category of gender but they has a time ofrelations. The verbs may be classified into: subjective and objective.
Subjective verbs are connected with their subject. In English practicallyall the verbs are subjective. In Russian - not all. They may be usedwithout their subjects (Темнеет). Objective verbs are closely connectedwith two nouns or noun equivalents. Objective verbs which are connectedwith their objects directly are transitive verbs, all others --intransitive.

As to their morphemes we find a greater variety and abundance of stem -building affixes in Russian (в-, вз-, воз-, пери-, за-, з-, на-, над-, низ-
,-Ова-,-ствова-). In English the number of v-building suffixes is limited
(-ify,-ate,-en, etc). Though the number of prefixes in English is greater
(mis-, un-, be-, out-, etc).

The most productive way of forming verbs in MoE is conversion. It isnot characteristic in Russian (because of the different structures). Wefind difference in the system of the non-finite forms, we find no gerund in
Russian. The Infinitive in English is characterized by such categories asvoice, aspect, correlation. The tense-system of the verb is different inthe two languages. In English all the tenses but the Past Indefinite and
Present Indefinite are analytical. In English all the tenses are tense -aspect forms but the indefinite group. In Russian practically the tensesare synthetically. Only the Future tense may be both synthetically andanalytical.

№ 3. The category of tense in English and in Russian compare.

There are 3 tenses in both lang-s: Past, Present and Future. But thereis difference in the number of grammatical tenses. This is because the twolang-s are different in their morphological structure. The Russian lang.has a rich morphology while the morphology of the English us poor.

In English all grammatical tenses are divided into 4 large groups.
They are: Indefinite, Continues, Perfect, Perfect Continues. The specificfeature of the English language is that all the tenses are analytical butthe Present and the Past Indefinite. All tenses in English are tense-aspectforms, but the Indefinite tenses. We say that these tenses are tense-aspectforms because they express both the time of an action and the character ofan action (He is reading a book now).

The tense-system of the verb is different in the two languages. In
English all the tenses but the Past Indefinite and Present Indefinite areanalytical. In English all the tenses are tense-aspect forms but theindefinite group. In Russian practically the tenses are synthetically. Onlythe Future tense may be both synthetically and analytical.

№ 4. The category of aspect in English and in Russian compare.

Both in ER is characterized by the category of aspect. But thiscategory of two languages is quite different. In English the category ofaspect shows the character of an action. That is whether the action isshown as a fact or it shown in its progress in its developments (Pete readsbooks everyday). Practically we have two aspects in English: the continuesand the non-continues common aspects. In Russian the c.o.a. expresses thecompleteness or incompleteness of an action. The perfective aspect. Subjectis usually form in MoR with the help of prefixes (внести, винести,занести ...). Different verbs combine with the different number of prefixes.
Usually the verb with the suffix-ну-express instantanian action. In
English we used only one word (штовхати, штовхнути - to push). There are somemodern verb in Russian with the suffix-ну-which do not expressinstantanians actions. (в'янути, грузнути, гаснуть, сохнути) It depends uponthe lexical meaning. The imperfective aspect. The words of imperfectiveaspect are formed by means of such suffixes as-ива-,-ива-,-ва-,-а-,-я-
. (переписати - переписувати, забити - забивати). In English the repetitionof an action is usually expressed with the help of the prefix "re-" (towrite-to rewrite). In MoR there are exist a group of words of motions whichhave two forms of the imperfective aspect. The category of aspect in MoR isvery closely connected with the lexical meaning of the word.

№ 5. The category of voice in English and in Russian compare.

There are different points of view concerning the number of voicesboth in ER. There is an opinion that there are 3 voices in MoR: active,middle reflexive and passive. Grammatically we have only 2 voices in
English; active and passive. (Boy reads the book. The book is read by theboy.) In the active voice the subject is the doer of an action while in thepassive voice the subject is not the doer of an action. There are somegroup of verbs in MoR which are not used in the passive voice: 1) all theintransitive verbs without the suffix «-ся» (йти, їхати, ходити), 2)reflexive verbs built upon intransitive ones (спіткнутися, посміхнутися), 3)some verbs with the suffix «-ся» having a special meaning (слухати -слухатися, нести-нестися).

The specific feature of the English language is that the Passive voicemay be formed the verbs connected with the indirect object. (She gave me abook. I was given a book by her. - Adv.modifier.) Let us compare the numberof active-passive oppositions in both languages. We see that Russian havetwo: пише - пишеться. In English we have 10 active-passive opposition. Theforms of the Future Continues, Present Perfect Continues, Past Perfect
Continues, Future Perfect Continues are not used in the Passive Voice. Thecategory of voice is closely connected with the text (братипереписуються, паперу переписуються секретарем). The instrumental case in
Russian corresponds to the by-phrase in English. When the Past Particleexpresses a state - Active voice, when it expresses the action - Passivevoice. The action is emphasized by the by-phrase, the adv.modifier andsometimes by the form itself. The continues perfect forms usually emphasizean action (the door has been shut - svpr .).

№ 7. The category of mood in English and in Russian compare.

We find 3 moods both in ER. The category of mood expresses therelation of an action to reality. (We were at home at 6 o'clock - reality,
If we were at home at 6 o'clock - unreality). The relation of an action toreality may be expressed lexically. Then we use modal verbs: звичайно,обов'язково, точно, etc. (Of course he will be at home now). The relationof an action may be expressed lexically and grammatically at the same time.
Then we use modal verbs (He can do it. He may do it.). It may bephonetically with the help of intonation. The category of mood is one ofthe most complicated categories especially in English. Usually we speakabout three moods in Russian. (Дійсного, наказовий іумовний). The number of moods in MoE is greater. The bestclassification of moods was introduced by Смирнитський. He finds six moods,which must be divided into direct (Indicative, imperative) and indirect
(Subjunctive I, II, suppositional and conditional) moods.

№ 8. The Subjunctive mood in English and in Russian compare.

In both languages the Subjunctive mood expresses a probable, possible,imaginary or unreal action. (If I had time I should visit you - якщо б умене був час, я б відвідав тебе.) There are many opinions existsconcerning the number of moods both in ER. Smirnitsky finds 4 subjunctivemoods in MoE: Subjunctive I, II, conditional and suppositional. There is anopinion that in MoR there are 5 subjunctive moods such as the conditional,the optative, the suppositional, the conditional optative and thesubjunctive moods. But practically we have only 4 moods. The suppositionaland subjunctive I are grammatical synonyms. They express probable,possible, imaginary actions. But there are quite different in their forms.
Subjunctive I is a syntactical form of the mood. It has only one form.
Which coincides with infinitive without "to". (I write, he write, shewrite). The suppositional mood is an analytical form. It is formed with thehelp of a mood auxiliary "should + Infinitive". (I should write, He shouldwrite). The SI is used both in simple and in complex sentences. (It isnecessary that all the students be present at the classroom). Thesuppositional mood is used only in complex sentences (It is necessary thatall the students should be present.). SI is archaic form and it is oftenreplaced by the suppositional mood. The SII and the conditional mood arealso grammatical synonyms. They express unreal actions or non-fact actions.
SII is considered to be a syntactical mood. It has two forms. If the actionis referred to the present or to the future it's form coincides with thepast indefinite indicative (wrote, read). The verb "to be" is used to be
"Were". If the actions refer to the past the form of SII coincides with the
Past Perfect Indicative. (If I knew it. If I had know it.) It is usuallyused in subordinate clauses of the complex sentence. The conditional moodis an analytical. It is formed with the help of a mood auxiliary ( "Shouldor Would "). (I should read, You would read). The conditional mood isusually used in principle clauses of complex sentences. (If I were you Ishould do it. - SII, conditional mood). (Referring to the past - If I hadbeen you I should have done it).

The subjunctive mood in MoR is formed from the past tense form addingthe particle "б". It possesses the category of gender and number.

№ 9. The noun as a part of speech in E & R compare.

The meaning of the noun in both languages is the same. It expresses
"Thingness". Syntactically the noun both in ER is used in the samefunctions: subject, object and predicative. (A boy is going to school. Myfather is an engineer. Look at the picture on the wall.) A peculiarity of
Russian is the abundance of suffixes of subjective appraisal (братику,квиточок, доню). In English there is a suffix "-let" (booklet, leaflet).
In both languages we find the grammatical category of number and case. Butthey are different. In Russian we have practically 6 cases while in Englishwe find only 2 cases (the common and the possessive). The common case in
English isn't marked while the nominative case in Russian is marked. (Cf: atable-стіл, a window - вікно). The formation of the plural number isstandard in English and non-standard in Russian. Number and case aresometimes expressed by separate morphemes in English (oxen-oxen's). Thecase-morpheme - " 's" may be used sometimes not with a noun (The man I sawyesterday's son). Though the meaning of case in both languages is therelation of nouns to other nouns in the sentence. The possessive case isused only with nouns (Peter's book - книга Петі). The common case in
English is very widely used. It may function as any part of the sentence --subject, object, predicative, attributive, and adverbial modifier.
Prepositions are of great importance in English. The of-phrase ispractically used with all the nouns. The difference between the possessivecase and the of-phrase is rather stylistic. The category of gender in thetwo languages is different. In Russian it is morphological while in Englishit is lexical. Practically we have only one suffix in English to expressthis category morphologically - "-ess". In both languages nouns are dividedinto countable and uncountable. Uncountable include singularia tantum andpluralia tantum. In Russian there is nearly always the correlation betweenthe form and between the combinability (години стали, комітет засідає, сім'ячекає, сани їдуть). In English it is not so. (The cables are, physics is, thefamily is/are). The number of Russian nouns having no case-forms is notlarge. Usually they are borrowings. (пальто, таксі, кенгуру, депо).

In both languages the functions of different cases are different. In
Russian only a nominative case can be the subject. Only an accusative casemay be a direct object, only a nominative or an instrumental case is usedas a predicative. In English the possessive case is used practically as anattribute.

№ 10. The category of state in E & R compare.

In both languages exist such as asleep, awake, alike, добре, душно.
This words expressed different states. By many Russian grammarians thiswords were discussed and called different (adverbs, adjectives, predicativeadverbs or adjectives). Sherba was the first to say that these words forman independent part of speech and it was called the category of state. In
English such words as asleep, awake. Ilyish called them stative, Хаймовичcalled them add-link, and some others called them the words of the categoryof state or predicative. Usually such words are referred to these class: 1)words beginning with "a-" - which is a prefix (alive, asleep, etc), 2)words beginning with "a-" - which is not a prefix (afraid, awake, aloof,etc), 3) words consisting of one root which developed from adjectives oradverbs and now they denote a state (ill, glad, sorry, well, etc). Thequestion is rather complicated because different grammarians referdifferent words of this class. Жигайло, Іванова, Йофік refer to this classonly the words beginning with "a-". There is an opinion that this class isvery rich in words expressing a state. (Лейкин refers to this class suchwords as in, up, down, on, etc. e.g. what's up?). Different opinion exist:
1) the words of the category of state form an independent part of speech.
It may be characterized: semantically, morphologically and semantically.
Professor Ilyish said that semantically they denote a state,morphologically they are characterized by the element "a-", andsyntactically they are used as a predicative. (He is asleep --comp.nom.pred.) 2) The words of the type "asleep" do not from anindependent part of speech. There are predicative adjectives. This point ofview was put forward by professor Бархударов. 3) The words of the type
"Alive" do not form a grammatical category, they form a lexically category.
This is because a state may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1)by noun (it's time to have dinner), 2) by adj. (he is happy or unhappy) and
3) by participle II (The house is destroyed). This point of view was putforward by professor Вілюман.

№ 11. The adjective as a part of speech in E & R compare.

Both in English and in Russian the adjective has the same meanings. Itexpresses the quality or the characteristics of an action. The adj. ischaracterized in the two languages by the same syntactical functions. Theyare attribute and the predicative. (An interesting book. A book isinteresting). Morphologically the adj-e in ER is different. The Russian adj -e is more changeable. It's characterized by such morphological categoriesas the category of gender, number, case and the category of the degrees ofcomparison. (цікава книга - цікаві книги, яскраве сонце, цікавийспіврозмовник). The adj-e has only one grammatical category - the category ofthe degrees of comparison. (red-redder-the reddest, good-better-the best).
There are 3 degrees of comparison of adj-s. In both languages the positivedegree, the comparative and the superlative. The positive degree in Englishis not marked (red, beautiful) while in Russian it is marked (красивий,гарна, гарне). In English adj-s are monosemantic, they havepractically one grammatical meaning, while in Russian the adj-e ispolysemantic (хороший has such gram-l m-gs as masculine gender, singularnumber, nominative case, the positive degree). But the syntheticcomparative as красивіше, краще і сильніше is monosemantic in Russian aswell. In Russian most qualitative adjectives have short forms, which areusually used as predicative. The combinability of adjectives is alsodifferent in the 2 lang-s. In English we usually speak about lexical andlexical-grammatical combinability. In Russian the grammatical combinabilityis of great importance (широке вікно, коричневий стіл). The Englishadjective may have its right-hand connection with the prop-word "one" (agood one, a nice one). There are some adj-ves in Russian the syntacticalfunction of which changes the meaning (present, ill, glad; the presentsituation (not equal) the student is present). Russian adjectives arecharacterized by the so-called suffixes of subjective appraisal
(довгенькі, довжелезний, задовга). In both languages the adj is dividedinto two groups: qualitative, relative. The number of relative adj-s ismuch greater in Russian. Russian relative adj-s are usually rendered into
English by a noun in the common case (настільна лампа - a table lamp).
Among the relative adj-s in the Russian lan-ge. There is a group ofpossessive adj-s (Ольгин, мамин, батьків).

№ 12. Parts of speech in E & R compare.

Both in RE the vocabulary is classified into parts of speech. Thewords are classified into parts of speech according to three mainprincipals: lexical, morphological and syntactical. ER belong to the Indo-
European family of the languages. They have much in common. There are manywords which both in languages having the same root morpheme: sister,brother, mother, etc. Practically we find the same parts of speech in bothlanguages. But there is not article in Russian. Words having one and thesame meaning may belong to different parts of speech. (тиша, тихий, тихо;to sleep, asleep, sleepy). This shows that the lexical meaning only is notenough to classify the vocabulary into parts of speech. The Russianlanguage is syntactical, while the English is analytical. In Russian themorphological principle is a great importance when we classify words intoparts of speech. The English morphology is poor and also the syntacticalprinciple and the combinability of words are of great importance. (a blackstone, a stone wall). The parts of speech in both languages are dividedinto: notional words and form-words order and empty words. Such parts ofspeech as the noun, the verb, the adjective, the pronoun, and the stativeare notional parts of speech. But the conjunction, the preposition, theparticle, the article are formal parts of speech. So in both languagesthere are some words, which forward from one into another parts of speech.

№ 13. The adverb as a part of speech in E & R compare.

The adverb is a notional part of speech both in ER. Therefore it ischaracterized lexically, morphologically and syntactically. The lexicalmeaning. The adverb in both languages denotes some circumstances underwhich an action takes place. It may also denote some characteristics of anaction or of a quality. (He has come late. Він прийшов пізно. He is here. Вінтут). These adverbs express some circumstances under which an actiontakes place. The syntactical functions of the adverb are also the same bothin ER. It performs the syntactical function that of an adverbial modifier.
(He is here. Він тут. - The adverbial modifier of place). The adverb inthe 2 languages may perform the syntactical functions of different adv.
Modifiers such as time, place, manner, cause, purpose and so on. (He willcome tomorrow. He speaks fluently.). As to the syntactical relations of theadverb to words of other classes, it is characterized by being connectedwith the verb, adjective and adverb. (He runs quickly. - Verb; He is veryclever. - Adj; He acts very cleverly. - Adverb). The adverb may be alsoconnected with the noun, but this is not a characteristic feature of theadverb. (My friend lives in the room opposite. - Noun). As to themorphological characteristics a part of adverbs in both languages has thedegrees of comparison. (slowly-more slowly-the most slowly). All theadverbs in both languages are divided into 2 large groups. They are:
Circumstantial, Qualitative. They are different both in their lexicalmeaning, grammatical char-s and word-formation. Circumstantial adverbs arethose adverbs, which denote the circumstances under which an action takesplace (here, there, late, тут, тепер, там, тоді). While the qualitativeadverbs do not express any external circumstances. They express thecharacteristics of an action or a quality. (slowly, fluently, badly).
Qualitative adverbs are used in the function of an adverbial modifier ofmanner. (He runs quickly.) The circumstantial adverbs perform the functionof adverbial modifiers but manner. (He was there. He will come tomorrow.)
The circumstantial adverbs are always connected with the verb, they areunchangeable. The qualitative adverbs may be connected with verb, adj,adverb.

№ 14. Word-combination in E & R. Their definition and classification.

The word-combination both in ER is characterized by the followingfeatures. Practically the word-combination consist of two or more notionalwords (a brown table). There is an opinion that a word-combination mayinclude two or more any words (a table, a book). Some grammarians thinksthat it is a word-combination, while the sentence may be expressed by oneword only, because the sentence possesses a complete intonation. The word -combination has practically no intonation. Therefore the word-combinationis not a unit of communication. The word-combination has no predication. Ifwe say "a black table" we are not quite sure what tense is meant here.
Therefore the wc has no predicative relations, such as the relation ofperson, tense, modality. While the main feature of the sentence is thatexpresses a predication. The w-c are usually build on the basis of onenotional word. This notional word is usually called the pivotal word of themain word. The wc are usually classified in accordance with their pivotalwords. We may have such wc as: 1) Substantial wc (a red rose, червонатроянда); 2) adjectival; 3) verbal (to give lessons, to read books); 4)adverbial (quite near, зовсім близько). W-cs both in ER may be classifiedinto: - free syntactical comb-s, phraseological units. Free syntacticalcombinations are such combinations the part of which may be freely replaced
(a large table - a large brown table). A phraseological unit is understoodas a whole and its parts are not freely replaced (to show the white feather -A w-c mayalso classified according to their relations between the words in them.
When we may have: attributive combinations (a young man, a brown table),objective (to read a book), adverbial (coming tomorrow, читав стоячи/сидячи). W -c may be simple and complex. Simplex w-c usually consist of 2 notionalwords (a red rose, a good student). Complex w-c consist usually of morethan 2 words (to travel to a big city, a big red rose). W-c may besubordinative (include pivotal words, or the pivotive words) andcoordinative wc (all the element or words of they are equal - ножі івилка, a boy and a girl).

№ 15. Agreement as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in

ER compare.

Agreement is not often found in MoE, nut it is widely used in MoR.
Agreement is used to adjust the form of modified word to the form of thepivotive word. (this room-these rooms, that room-those rooms, I have a book -he has a book). Agreement in MoR is found in such grammatical categories asgender, number, case, and person: 1) Full forms of adjectives in MoR agreewith corresponding nouns in gender, number and case (широкий затока, широкарічка, широке озеро - gender; широкий затока - широкого затоки - case;широкий затока - широкі затоки - number). In plural no agreement in genderis observed (широкі затоки - no gender). 2) Short forms of adjective donot agree in case. In singular they agree in gender, number (місто гарний,площа красива - gender; місто красивий - міста красиві - number). In
Plural they agree only in number. Cardinal-numerals in case (п'яти будинків,п'ятьма будинками). Verbs in Future and Present Tenses agree in number andperson (учень пише, учні пишуть).

№ 16. Government as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in

ER compare.

Government is a variety of syntactical connection in accordance withwhich the use of the oblique case is dependent upon the grammatical meaningof the pivotal word. Government found both in ER. In English government isused to join together 2 nouns: the noun-attribute usually is used in the
Possessive Case. (A boy's book - boys 'books, A day's holiday, an hour'sabsence). Government is used in verbal combinations where the object isexpressed by a personal pronoun (Believe me, help him). Prepositionalgovernment is more frequently used in MoE (to rely on him, to depend uponhim). The verb governments through the preposition. In MoR governing wordsmay be expressed by different parts of speech: 1) by a noun (крило птиці);
2) by an adjective (схильний до жартів); 3) by a numeral (двадцятьдерев); 4) by a pronoun (хтось з братів); 5) by an Infinitive
(поливати вулицю); 6) by an adverb (жарко від сонця). A noun or a noun -equivalent usually expresses governed words (витягувати корисне, повагу достаршим). In accordance with the part of speech the governing word belongsto, government in MoR is subdivided into: substantial (огляд будівлі - gen.case), adjectival (цікавий для глядача - gen. case with a prep.),adverbial (робити весело, йому приємно), verbal (оглядати будинок --accusative case, довірити ворогу - dative case).

№ 17. Adjoining as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in

ER compare.

Adjoining is a variety of syntactical connection when the dependenceof one word upon another is expressed not morphologically but semantically
(My room-my rooms, a small room-small rooms). In MoR the mostly spreadadjoining is when an adverb is subordinated. Pivotal words may be expressedby different parts of speech:

1) by a verb (твердо засвоєний, добре написаний),

2) by a stative (цілком можливо),

3) by an adjective (майже чорний),

4) by an adverb (дуже слабо),

5) by a noun (їзда кроком).

The Infinitive aswell may be subordinated (пішов займатися, жальрозлучатися). Sometimes дієслово may be subordinated (розмовляючидивився на співрозмовника).

№ 18. The sentence. Its features in ER compare. 3 main ways of word connection in the sentence.

Syntax is closely connected with morphology, but it is an independentpart of grammar. It studies word-combinations and sentences. The mainfeatures of a sentence: 1) the sentence expresses a complete thought whilew-c does not. (Cf: The table is brown. A brown table.); 2) the sentence hasa definite intonation and that is why may consist only of one word, whilethe wc consists of two or more words; 3) the sentence has a verb in afinite form (Cf: the weather is nice, the nice weather); 4) the sentenceexpresses predication that is the relation between what is said to reality.

The action may be real, unreal, possible, probable and so on. Theaction in the sentence may be referred to Present, Past or Future. The w-cin a sentence may be connected in 3 ways: - the lexical way, thegrammatical and the phonetical way.

The lexical way is the connection of words according to their lexicalmeaning (хлопчик читати книга - boy read book). Of course, the lexical wayis not enough. The given sentences are understandable but they are notexpressed grammatically. We don't know the time of an action; we don't knowthe type of the sentence. So, words in a sentence must be connectedgrammatically. There are 3 main grammatical ways of word connection in asentence: 1) the forms of words, 2) the form-words and 3) the word order.

1.The forms of words are not typical of the English language, becausethe morphological system of it is poor. This way is typical of the Russianlanguage. (I/You/We (S/he) read (s) a book, Я читаю, ти читаєш ...).

2. The form-words is of a great importance in MoE. It is also widerspread in MoR. Form-words in ER are subdivided into: 1) the determinativeform-words (we refer: in English - articles and particles while in Russian
- Only particles) and 2) connectives (both in ER we refer prepositions andconjunctions).

3. The word-order in MoE is of a great importance. In MoR the word -order in the sentence is rather free. While in English the first place isusually occupied by the subject, the second place is occupied by the
Predicate, the third place - by the object, the fourth place - by theadverbial modifier. (Ann sees John - Аня бачить Джона. John sees Ann (notequal) Джона бачить Аня).

№ 19. Classification sentences according to the type of communication in ER compare.

Both in English and in Russian sentences may be classified accordingto: 1) types of communication and 2) structure.

According to the types of communication sentence in both languages aredivided into: 1) declarative, 2) interrogative and 3) imperative.

A Declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negativeform. There is a great difference between English and Russian negativesentences. An English sentence may have only one negation while the Russiansentence one may have more than one. (Nobody was late. - Ніхто не спізнився.)
An Interrogative sentence asks a question. In English there are four windsof questions: general, special, alternative and disjunctive. (Do youwant ...?, Where do you want ...?, Do you want ... or ...?, You want ..., don't you?).
Russian interrogative sentence may be divided into 2 groups: 1)
Interrogative sentence having no interrogative words, sometimes they maycontain such particles as адже, як, що, невже, хіба, чи, and etc. Insuch cases they differ from declarative sentence in intonation. (Інженерпоїхав до Москви? Його тут немає? Хіба він вам писав? Невже він пішов?); 2)
Interrogative sentences having interrogative words, such as хто, що, куди,звідки, чому (Хто прийшов? Що ви читаєте?). Special attention must bepaid to the indirect questions the rules of sequence of tenses must beobserved.

Imperative sentences serve to induce a person to do something. Theyexpress a command, a request, an invitation, a wish, a demand, a call andso on. Declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences may beexclamatory when they express a strong emotion (happiness, delight, anger,etc). (What a lovely day it is! How wonderful!) (Москва як багато в цьомузвуці ...).

№ 20. Classification sentences according to the structure in ER compare.

According to the structure sentences are divided into: two-member andone-member sentences. A two-member sentence has two members: the subjectand the predicate. (Pete reads. Mary writes.) A two-member sentence may be:complete and incomplete 2 member sentences. The complete has both thesubject and the predicate. The incomplete is a sentence then one of theprinciple parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understoodfrom the sentence. Such sentences are called elliptical. (Where are yougoing? - To the cinema.) Elliptical sentences are usually met in colloquialspeech and dialogues. A one-member sentence is a sentence, which has onlyone member, which is neither the subject nor the predicate. One membermakes the sentence complete. One-member sentences are generally used indescription and in emotional speech. If the main part of a one-membersentence is expressed by a noun and the sentence is called nominal. (Dusk -of the summer night. Зима, селянин торжествує). A simple sentence maybe extended (has both the principle parts of the sentence and the secondaryparts. E.g. Pete reads book everyday.) And unextended (has only the subjectand the predicate). Sentences in both languages may be composite. Compositesentences are divided into: compound and complex. A compound is a sentencewhich consist of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. (Thedarkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighting. Прозоріліс один чорніє ...). A complex sentence consist of a principal clause andone or more subordinate clauses. (He steps quicken as he set out from thehotel.) Subordinated clauses may be of different types: subject (Where I amgoing is unknown), object, predicative (with link-verb), attributive,adverbial.